Glossary

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palate
the roof of the mouth which is protected by a soft tissue.
paleoanthropology

the study of the fossil record of human evolution.

Paleocene

an epoch in the Cenozoic era on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 65 million years ago to 24 million years ago; marked by the first appearance of horses, whales and many rodents in the fossil record. The Paleocene is the first epoch of the Tertiary period.

paleoecology
the study of past environments.
Paleogene
a sub-period in the Tertiary period on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 65 million years ago to 24 million years ago; consists of the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene epochs.
Paleolithic

[Greek: "Old Stone Age"] the period of time that dates from the beginnings of stone tool manufacture and use at about 2.5 million years ago, and divided into three subgroup: Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic.

paleomagnetism
the study of the earth's magnetic fields and its changes over time.
Paleozoic

[Greek: "early life"] a geological era that approximately dates from 540 million years ago to 245 million years ago; contains the geologic periods Permian, Carboniferous (i.e., Pennsylvanian and Mississippian), Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian.

palmer
a relative term used to describe a feature on the anterior portion of the hand; the side with the palm.
paracone
the mesial cusp located on the buccal side of the upper molar.
paraconformity
a break in the geologic record marked by a physical line separating a layer of sedimentary rock deposited over a parallel layer of sedimentary rock.
paraconid
the mesial cusp located on the lingual side of the lower molar.
parallel evolution
the evolution of similar morphologies in unrelated species as a result of adapting to similar environment and/or functions.
Paranthropus

["the robust australopiths"] a form of extinct hominins, possibly ancestral to human, that approximately dates from 2.5 million years ago to 700,000 years ago; fossil paranthropines show evidence of bipedalism and retain relatively small brains. Paranthropines differ from australopithecines in that they have a robust stature, a pronounced sagittal crest, relatively larger cranial capacity, and immense mandibles. The genus Paranthropus includes the species Paranthropus aethiopicus, Paranthropus boisei and Paranthropus robustus.

Paranthropus aethiopicus
an extinct African hominin species, which possilby represents an early stage of Paranthropine evolution, that approximately dates between 2.6 and 2.3 million years ago; fossil remains found in West Turkana (Kenya) and Lower Omo (Ethiopia) suggest a relatively small brain size, large molars and forward projecting face (i.e., prognathism); no post-cranial material has been associated with this species. The type specimen for P. aethiopicus is a fragmentary mandible from the Shungura Formation Member C (Ethiopia). The most famous P. aethiopicus fossil is The Black Skull (KNM-WT 17000) found in West Turkana and dates to approximately 2.5 million years ago.
Paranthropus boisei
an extinct African hominin species that approximately dates from 2.5 million years ago to 1 million years ago; fossil remains found in East Africa (e.g., Peninj, Olduvai, Omo, East Turkana, and Chesowanja) indicate P. boisei had a robust build, exhibited a high degree of sexual dimorphism, and a relatively small brain size; P. boisei had very large cheek teeth, a relatively flatter face, a pronounced sagittal crest and very large mandible; the post-crania is very similar to Australopithecines. The type specimen for P. boisei is OH 5 found at Oluvai Gorge and dates to approximately 1.8 million years ago.
Paranthropus robustus
an extinct African hominin species that approximately dates from 1.8 million years ago to 1.2 million years ago; fossil remains found in South Africa (e.g., Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, and Gondolin) indicate P. robustus had a robust build, exhibited a high degree of sexual dimorphism and had an absolute brain size of approximately 500 cubic centimeters; the hand morphology suggests a grip that was capable of tool use. P. robustus had a pronounced sagittal crest, very large face and mandible; molarized premolars and larger molars than those seen in other Australopithecines; the post-crania is very similar to Australopithecines. The type specimen for P. robustus is TM 1517 found at Kromdraai and dates to approximately 2 million years ago.
parapatric speciation
the evolution of a daughter species from a small portion of individuals along a common border between two populations.
paraphyletic group

in cladistics, a clade (i.e., group) that consists of a single common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants.

parietal
bones forming the sides and the roof of the skull.
parsimony
the idea that the simplest explanation is the most likely. In cladistics, parsimony states that the best representation of a relationship between species is that which depicts the least amount of evolutionary changes from the last common ancestor.
pastoralist
one who herds domesticated animals as a way of life.
pathology
the study of disease and disease processes.
pelvic inlet
the border of the pelvic cavity.
Pennsylvanian
a sub-period in the Carboniferous period on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 325 million years ago to 300 million years ago; marked by the rapid evolution of plants, presence of reptiles, and the expansion of insects due to the spread of wetland forests.
period

an interval of geologic time shorter than an era and longer than an epoch.

Permian
a period in the Paleozoic era on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 280 million years ago to 225 million years ago; marked by the formation of the Appalachain mountains, diversification of reptiles and amphibians, and many shallow marine animal extinction events.
phalangeal shaft curvature
the observed curve in the shaft of a phalanx (i.e., finger bone).
Phanerozoic

[Greek: "visible life"] an eon that approximately dates from 545 million years ago and the present; marked as the time of living organisms; contains the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.

phenotype

observable physical properties of an organism resulting from genes and the affects of the environment.

phyletic
in cladistics, a group that has a common ancestor
phyletic classification
see phylogenetic tree or phylogeny.
phyletic gradualism
one of two competing models of evolutionary change that states adaptations occur gradually within a lineage or population. See also punctuated equilibrium.
phylogenetic tree
a hypothetical reconstruction of evolutionary relationships and times between groups.
phylogeny

an evolutionary lineage.

physical anthropology

the study of humans and the other primates from a biological and evolutionary perspective.

plantar
a relative term that describes features on the inferior portion of the foot; the sole.
plantarflexion

flexion of the foot toward the ground or distally. The foot is plantarflexed when you stand on the tips of your toes.
plate tectonics
the movement of the plates that form the earth's lithosphere (i.e. the rigid crust and upper mantle) propelled by the convection current inside the molten lower mantle.
Pleistocene

an epoch in the Cenozic era on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 1.8 million years ago to 10,000 years ago; marked by the evolution of modern Homo sapiens and giant land mammals. The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary period.

plesiomorphy

a primitive trait.

Pliocene

an epoch in the Cenozoic era on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 5.3 million years ago to 1.8 million years ago; marked as the period of human evolution after the split from the ape lineage. The Pliocene is the last epoch of the Tertiary period.

pollex
the thumb, or first finger.
polyandry
a mating relationship involving more than one male but only one female.
polygamy
a mating relationship involving more than one male and more than female.
polygenic inheritance
refers to the shared common ancestor within a group of species.
polygymy
a mating relationship involving one male but more than one female.
polyhedron
an angular tool with three or more working edges, which may intersect.
polymorphism
[adj. polymorphic] many forms.
polyphyletic group
in cladistics, a clade (i.e., group) that consists of descendants, but not a common ancestor of those descendants; usually depicts convergent evolution.
population
a single organism or group of organisms of a single living species in a particular geographical area. The organism(s) living within a population are more likely to breed with members of their own population than they are with members of other populations.
population genetics
the study of how genes change in frequency within populations, often in response to natural selection
positional behavior

the entire repertoire of positions that an animal engages in, including movement or locomotion (i.e., leaping, walking, climbing, brachiation, etc.), and positions at rest or posture (sitting, standing, hanging, feeding, sleeping, etc.).

post-orbital bar
the bony protuberance found on the side of the orbits on the skull that surrounds and protects the eye; found in most living primates and mammals.
post-orbital constriction

the narrowing bony portion behind the orbits of the skull; produced by a combination of having a large face and a small brain and sometimes large temporalis muscles.

postcranial
refers to the body below the cranium (i.e., skull and mandible).
postmortem
the time frame after death.
Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) dating
an absolute dating technique that measures the ratio of 40Potassium (40K) to 40Argon (40Ar) present in a sample.
Precambrian
a supereon on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from the formation of the earth (4.6 billion years ago) to 540 million years ago. The Precambrian makes up about 80% of the earth
prehensile
grasping capabilities.
premortem
[syn. antemortem] the time frame before death.
prepared core
a prepared lithic with the outer cortex removed, and platforms for flaking typically prepared.
pressure flaking
a technique used to trim the edge of a tool, typically done with a sharp instrument made from bone or antler and pressure, rather than a strike, is used to generate a flake.
primates

in taxonomic classifications, a mammalian order that includes prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans.

primatology

the study of primates.

primitive trait

a trait that is present in the ancestral form.

process
in anatomical terms, a projection from the bone
processing
modification of the messenger RNA (mRNA) by adding a cap, a tail, and by splicing the RNA molecule through the elimination of the entrons and leaving only the exons; the second part in the process of creating protein from genes.
prognathism

forward projection of the jaws beyond the rest of the face.

pronation

rotary motion that moves the thumb from the lateral to the medial position; the opposite of supination.
protein
the base for most of the body's structure that is made up of amino acids.
Proterozoic

[Greek: "before life"] an era on the geologic time scale that approximately dates from 2.5 billion years ago to 540 million years ago; marked by the formation and breakup of Rodinia and the evolution of the first metazoans; contains the Vendian or Ediacaran periods.

protocone
the mesial cusp located on the lingual side of the upper molar.
protoconid
the mesial cusp located on the buccal side of the lower molar.
protuberance
an elevation or raised deposition on the bone surface.
proximal

a relative term used to describe a part of a limb that is closer to the attachment point to the trunk of the body; the opposite of distal.

pubis
[plural: pubes] a bone of the os coxa that fuses into the ischium and ilium and forms the ventral and inferior component of the acetabulum.
punctuated equilibrium
one of two competing models of evolutionary change that states a population is generally unchanging but may undergo occasional (short) periods of intense change. See also phyletic gradualism.
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